CONTEXT

Fo's play was based on the Piazza Fontana bombing in 1969 and the death of an anarchist in police custody. The play's purpose is, as previously discussed, to mock the incompetency of the police force (in Italy) and their corruption. The bombing took place at the headquarters of the National Agricultural Bank in the Piazza Fontana, Milan, killing 17 people and wounding 88. Later that afternoon another bomb was found unexploded in Rome, at the tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Earlier in the year, 5 were injured when a bomb exploded at a Milan trade fair at a Fiat booth - another was discovered at the city's central station. These events were part of a well-coordinated series of terrorist attacks that have a complicated and tangled aftermath of blame and discovery of secrets, involving many different people and groups, all with different political intentions.

Initially, the attacks were blamed on Italian anarchists, and the police made over 80 arrests before their suspect, railway worker Giuseppe Pinelli fell out of a fourth-floor window of the police station where he was being held to his death. There were serious discrepancies within the police reports - it was first maintained that it was a suicide - when the three police officers responsible for the death were put on trial, it was found they had done nothing wrong, and that Pinelli fell due to losing balance and fainting, tired after three days of questioning. One of the officers, Commissioner Luigi Calabresi, was later assassinated by far-left group Lotta Continua, who held him responsible for the death, despite him not being in the room at the time.

Following this was a ridiculously long series of accusations but an inability to ever pin the crime on an individual. Another anarchist was arrested after a taxi driver confessed to driving a suspicious-looking passenger to the bank the same day as the bombing, but was only preventatively detained for 3 years and never fully convicted. Focus then shifted to the neo-fascist, far-right Italian group Ordine Nuovo, and linked group such as Terza Posizione (Third Position), which evolved out of Lotta Studentesca, and other undetermined collaborators. Two individuals were convicted and jailed for 16 years - more evidence came out in the 21st century linking more people to the crime, but the original two that were jailed couldn't be retried. The CIA and SISMI (the Italian investigative equivalent to the CIA) were then under investigation as they seemed to know more about the events than initially indicated, with rumours of bribery and corruption. General Gianadelio Maletti, head of the SID (an information and investigation service), member of a secret masonic society, was then found guilty of withholding information at the first trial in this case. A report concerning the Ordine Nuovo cell had been previously destroyed, and potential witnesses had been arranged to leave the country, all before Maletti emigrated to South Africa, in an effort to protect the far-right group. The evidence points towards the two convicted members of Ordine Nuovo as being responsible, as the bags containing the bombs were purchased by one them a couple of days before the attacks in his city, and the bombs were identical to those the other hid in a friend's house.

Ordine Nuovo is also Italian for 'New Order', another potential link to freemasonry and New World Order? Is there a secret totalitarian organisation using these attacks as a step towards world domination? Ordine Nuovo was a far-right, neo-fascist (post WW2) paramilitary (private but militarily active) group.

Corruption and in particular far right views was far spread and deeply pervaded the Italian government (as well as all over the world). The government employed a strategy of tension to maintain their power - this involved encouraging violent struggle (facilitated by all figures of authority, like both policemen and judges, which is why Pissani and the Superintendent expect help and no judgement from the Maniac) which created insecurity within the public, leading them to seek security with the government. This was particularly prominent during the Years of Lead from 1968 to 1982 (the Piazza Fontana bombings being the start of this). Furthermore, NATO and the US engaged in stay behind operations as a part of a Cold War effort, such as Operation Gladio in Italy specifically, which saw agents in many European governments that secretly suppressed far left uprisings to prevent an invasion or influence of Soviet communist Russia. This did work in some aspect (preventing a communist insurgency) but also ended up funding far right terrorist groups. Combined with the hangover from Mussolini's government, fascism still pervaded a powerful government and authority.

THEMES

The main themes are...

CHARACTERS

The characters are...

In the first lesson on the play, we read Act 1 Scene 1 and discussed the theatrical tools used in the performance, which give the play specific styles which then communicate meaning in a different way to the audience

Firstly, the Brechtian style (non-naturalistic) is often used for political theatre and was described by Brecht himself as being 'theatre for the brain' (not 'for the heart' as Stanislavski's naturalism was). It provokes thought and distances the audience from the performance itself, focusing on the meaning. Bertozzo at the start, but mostly the Maniac, uses direct address to remind the audience that it is indeed theatre, referencing the playwright and stage managers - the comedy combined with this awareness results in hilarious metatheatre in which the audience isn't too absorbed in the characters. Bertozzo even ironically alludes to the brutality of the police force before the play begins. The characters are also clearly exaggerated to give caricatures of themselves. The use of a narrator is also distinctly a Brechtian technique (the Maniac in this case).

The play is also farcical - this is a comedy centring around ridiculous situations, clearly exemplified in this play - the only a few pages in the Maniac is chasing the police officers around the room, acting like a dog, threatening to jump out the window, causing complete chaos that is also a characteristic of a farce.

The play further mirrors Commedia dell'Arte characters through each of their personalities and actions. This makes them recognisable and deliberately easy to mock and stereotype.

Later in our lessons, we worked on the opening scene to the play and focused on how to play Bertozzo to maximise this effect the character has on the audience.

TIMELINE

Act 1 Scene 1

Summary - The play begins with

Act 1 Scene 2

Summary - The play is continued when

Act 2 Scene 1

Summary - The act opens with

Comedy

There are three main theories as to why we laugh - although they might not cover every scenario they are fairly encompassing. There are then many comedic devices and skills that can be used by performers that exploit these theories.

1. Superiority theory - humour that comes from us laughing at those less fortunate or powerful than ourselves. This comedy often involves clear power dynamics such as master-servant relationships and as a result of this, physical humour and slapstick plays a large role. This may also tie into the concept of schadenfreude, the joy in others misfortune.

2. Relief theory - humour that comes from a release of tension or energy. Laughter can be a nervous and uncomfortable response. In this sense, comedy can be used as a tool to provide relief, helping the audience to focus and not be desensitised to serious messages (especially with practitioners such as Brecht). It may also create a feeling of guilt after laughter which emphasises a message, or just be funny and relieving.

3. Incongruity theory - humour that comes from something being completely out of place and subverting expectations of what may have happened

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/humor/

Different people have had some very different views on humour. Many philosophers have held laughter in bad repute, and have left it as a lesser talked about point despite . Plato believed it led us to loose rationality and provoking violence or malice. He also pointed to superiority theory as being morally questionable and perhaps favourable of ridiculousness or self-ignorance, which is a vice. These views were passed to Aristotle, the Stoics, and early Christians. The laughter of gods was often hostile or scornful. However, our understanding of why we laugh has expanded formally beyond just superiority theory (even though satire and comedy are also ancient forms of theatre). 

Comedy, in its first form in ancient Greece, contrasted but also had similarities to tragedy. Tragedies used catharsis in their endings and showed the downfall of our tragic hero. They exhibited certain ideals and showed a real human struggle. Comedy on the other hand doesn't take itself seriously and is crueller in a way - we don't necessarily connect to or feel sympathy for characters.

This has spilled from philosophy into psychology, and in Freud's 'Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious,' he identifies three situations, der Witz, the comic and humour as times when we laugh, to release energy - der Witz, or jokes, releases energy that would have been used to repress emotions or feelings, the comic releases energy that would have been used to thin, and humour releases energy that would have been used to feel emotions (namely with relief theory, energy we would have used to care or feel concern for a serious situation but can now let go of).

Laughter is a brilliant tool that, beyond our purposes of drama and entertainment, creates social bonds and relieves anxiety. It encourages us to play which is vital for humans.

Another important point to think about is how things might be funnier when people you know are performing the comedy - because we have more of a context of who they are in other situations, this comedy will be more exaggerated as a ridiculous or even embarrassing scene. Watching someone play a character that you know is exaggerated is funny and this clearly demonstrates incongruity theory.

Comedic Devices

Wit uses verbal (or language) skills to tell jokes.

Slapstick is essentially physical comedy where others get hurt in a You've Been Framed style - it plays into superiority theory. The hits and blows can also be ridiculous.

Dramatic Irony is a very important tool that plays hugely into superiority theory. Through the fact that it leaves one or more characters clueless about what is going to happen but has the audience more aware makes them more powerful.

Rule of Three uses repetitions of a small moment to make it funny - it may also show how stupid another character is by falling for a gag or a trick multiple times, using superiority theory.

Parody mocks other original versions of things, and relies on the audience understanding the original reference then making it more ridiculous. Furthermore, especially in a satire (parody) we mock those in power or positions of authority.

Clocking the audience is a form of direct address that helps us feel sympathy for a certain character. It allows the audience to form a link with an actor, making us feel superior to the others on stage as well as superior to the person we take sympathy for. Breaking the fourth wall can be ridiculous.

Inversion is another way to subvert expectations with a sudden change in character or mood of a scene. As a part of this, we can talk about a Lecoq principle of the mask and a counter mask. The counter mask is an unknown side to a character - the opposite to the rhythm of how we would expect them to act based on previous action, such as the cowardly side of Il Capitano.

Music can also be used to create comedic characters or ridiculous situations.

Clowning is also physical comedy.

Some genres and styles (such as farce) use these devices to create comedy more than others.

The Maniac